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Because conventional formulations are limited by poor bioavailability, gastrointestinal intolerance, and suboptimal tissue targeting, innovative drug delivery systems, such as nanoparticles, pH-responsive hydrogels, and microneedles, are being developed to enhance therapeutic efficacy, reduce adverse effects, and improve patient adherence (Sulong et al., 2025)

Another study with CuCl 2 treated Hep G2 cell line demonstrated that mitochondrial toxicity is an intermediate-level event associated with copper toxicity to Hep G2 cells while lysosomal damage is the early event and plasma damage a late feature associated with copper toxicity 34

If true, this would have profound implications for longevity

Kang Z, Liu F, Xu Y, Cheng J, Lin X, Jing X